Psychology of Crime and Social Learning Theory Free Essay Example, 4000 words

The presence of the distractions in the vicinity of the observer does have a detrimental impact on the potency of the social learning. If the model is attention grabbing, a learner is likely to pay a greater attention to the behaviour of that model. The ability of the observer to retain apt attention for the behaviour being exhibited by the model also plays a key role in the social learning. A number of factors can impact the retention a learner. Aso the ability of the learner to retrieve the retained information and to act on it is one essential for the social learning to take place (Hollin, 1989, pOnce the learner has attentively observed the behaviour of the model and has retained the relevant information pertaining to that behaviour, te reproduction of that behaviour by the learner is a must for the social learning to occur (Magnusson, 1981, p Moreover, arepeated practice of the learned behaviour leads to additional skill accrual and the refinement of the behaviour the part of the learner. Te model tends to many a times reinforce the learning in a learner. Fr instance, te teachers who make a conscious effort to imitate the behaviour and dressing style of their peers are more likely to be accepted by them. Te observer may also be motivated and reinforced by a third person also. Fr example, astudent may observe and tend to imitate the behaviour of the achievers in a class. I the class teacher on observing this behaviour on the part of a student to praise and motivate that student, tis may reinforce the learned behaviour in that student. Te repeated imitation of the observed behaviour by a learner also reinforces the learning accrued (Glassman Hadad, 2004, p A constant repetition of the observed behaviour on the part of a learner often leads to satisfaction and hence reinforcement. We will write a custom essay sample on Psychology of Crime and Social Learning Theory or any topic specifically for you Only $17.96 $11.86/pageorder now A example of this could be that a student may observe that the extra effort made by the achievers in a class endows them with a sense of satisfaction and achievement. Te imitation of behaviour by the observing student may also impart a sense of achievement and satisfaction to one.

Post Traumatic Stress Disorder ( Ptsd ) - 1575 Words

Post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) is a mental health condition triggered by a traumatic event that a person has either witnessed or experienced. The mind is unable to process information and feelings in a normal way and as result of the trauma and the client must help to move forward in their life. Symptoms commonly include flashbacks, nightmares and severe anxiety, as well as uncontrollable thoughts about the event. Many people who experience traumatic events have trouble adjusting and coping for a while, but are diagnosed with PTSD because with time and good self-care, they often get better. If symptoms get worse or last for months or even years and interfere with functioning, the person likely has PTSD. â€Å"PTSD is often characterized†¦show more content†¦Ã¢â‚¬Å"A recent estimate points out that the incidence of PTSD after a traumatic event ranges from as low as 6 percent to as high as 20 percent† (Brandell, 2011, p. 350). This rate dramatically increases if you are a veteran, rape victim, hold a job where you experience secondary trauma such as police officers, firefighters, or military personnel. There are several factor that contribute to a diagnosis of PTSD including childhood emotional problems, lower socioeconomic status, prior mental disorders, and genetics. For example, if a woman had low self-esteem prior to being raped, she will have an increased likihood of being diagnosed with PTSD. This is due to the fact that she is already emotionally impaired and may not have the coping skills to overcome the trauma on her own in comparison to a woman with high self-esteem. â€Å"Impaired functioning is exhibited across social, interpersonal, developmental, educational, physical health, and occupational domains† (American Psychiatric Association, 2013, p. 279). According to the DSM-5, there is a high probability that a person diagnosed with PTSD also has at least one other mental disorder. As a result, paying close attention to comorbidity will be important when considering a PTSD diagnosis and the best course of treatment. Traditional Theories One theory to consider when looking at the cause of PTSD is Psychodynamic Theory. This theory says that early childhood experiences are key to the patterning of one’s

Details Of Hiv And Aids Health And Social Care Essay Free Essays

The intent of composing this paper was to farther educate myself, and any other readers, on the inside informations of HIV and AIDS. As a kid turning up in the 1980s, I vividly remember the beginning of the HIV/AIDS epidemic here in the United States. The media was saturated with information ; so much so that even at a comparatively immature age I remember being reasonably good informed about ( and terrified of ) the disease. We will write a custom essay sample on Details Of Hiv And Aids Health And Social Care Essay or any similar topic only for you Order Now The positive was that that fright, and the sum of information that I had accumulated, stuck with me through life. I practiced safe sex ( every bit much as possible ) non merely to forestall gestation, but largely to avoid catching HIV or any other STI. Recently something occurred to me. I can non remember the last clip I ‘ve heard reference of HIV or AIDS in the media. While it ‘s non surprising the topic is n’t the hot subject it was about 30 old ages ago, this deficiency of attending may be a hurt to younger coevals ‘s cognition of the disease. I ca n’t talk about the Public School system, but in my ain ( private, spiritual school ) instruction from K – 12th class, I can mensurate the sum of sexual instruction I received in mere hours. It ‘s difficult to be concerned about a subject you may cognize following to nil approximately. My ain cognition of these diseases has non grown since high school. This was the inspiration to take this subject to compose on. I feel this subject is particularly relevant to college age pupils. At this clip in their lives, they may happen many chances to prosecute in hazardous behaviours that may take to exposure to HIV/AIDS. Without proper cognition, it may be easy to disregard the disease as non being unsafe any longer. After all, why worry about it if no 1 talks about it any longer? It must non be that large of a trade, right? Students this age demand to cognize that the disease is still prevailing, still incurable, and still really lifelessly. Being informed agencies they have the tools to protect themselves and do better picks to remain safe. HIV ( Human Immunodeficiency Virus ) and AIDS ( Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome ) are classified as a retrovirus, intending that it replicates by occupying a normal organic structure cell, destructing the cell ‘s Deoxyribonucleic acid and so copies its ain Deoxyribonucleic acid into the cell ‘s chromosomes. By reiterating this procedure over and over the virus spreads through the host. Infections begin by geting HIV. As the virus spreads, it begins to assail and destruct the organic structure ‘s immune system cells, specifically CD4+ T-cells. Once a individual ‘s measured CD4+ falls below half of the normal sum and they have developed one or more timeserving infections, they are diagnosed as holding AIDS. ( Johnson, 2008 ) ( The effects of the virus on the organic structure will be detailed in a ulterior subdivision ) To convey the HIV virus, bodily fluids such as seeds, vaginal fluids or blood of an septic individual must come in the blood stream of another. As such, some of the most common paths of infection include unprotected sex and sharing acerate leafs used for endovenous drug usage, tattooing or organic structure piercing. Other methods include blood transfusions ( though current testing techniques have reduced this to virtually nil ) or mother-to-infant transmittals through blood during gestation or bringing, or through breast milk while nursing. ( Hunter, 2005 ) The first instance of HIV/AIDS was non discovered until around 1981, in the United States. Within one twelvemonth, 1500 new instances of what would finally go known as AIDS were diagnosed. ( Patton, 2002 ) Since that clip the figure of people known to be populating with HIV/AIDS worldwide has skyrocketed. Harmonizing to statistics from the World Health Organization, as of 2008 about 33.4 million people across the Earth are presently populating with HIV. ( World Health Organization [ WHO ] , 2008 ) How common is the problem/issue in the United States? For the first several old ages of the epidemic the reported instances of AIDS in the United States continued to lift, hitting a high point of 79,752 new instances being reported in the twelvemonth 1993. From the beginning of the epidemic in 1981 through the twelvemonth 2000, and estimated sum of 733,374 people had been diagnosed with AIDS. ( McElrath, 2002 ) Since so the figure of new instances has decreased and become reasonably changeless, with the new estimation being about 37,991 new instances reported and a cumulative sum of 1,106,391 people diagnosed with the disease since the start. The figure of people populating with HIV in the United States has continued to lift over the old ages, and it is estimated that as of 2006 over 1 million people are infected with the disease, with 42,439 new instances reported in 2008. ( Center for Disease Control and Prevention [ CDC ] , 2010 ) The disease seem to be more prevailing among work forces. 73 % of all new HIV/AIDS instances diagnosed in 2006 were work forces. ( Hock, 2007 ) Certain cultural groups are disproportionately affected by the disease every bit good. African Americans make up about 12 % of the U.S. population, but history for about half of the entire population life with the disease every bit good as half of the new infections reported per twelvemonth. Likewise, Hispanics/Latinos comprise 17 % of the state ‘s population but history for for 17 % of those populating with the disease and the same per centum of new infections per twelvemonth. ( CDC, 2010 ) The rate of new infections among both sexes of these minorities is several times that of Caucasians. HIV/AIDS is besides more prevailing amongst the immature, specifically striplings and immature grownups. Of the sum reported instances of AIDS through 2008, merely about 9,349 were diagnosed in kids under the age of 13. The age scope of 20 – 40 seems to be the hardest hit, and comprises about 2/3 of the entire figure of instances reported in the U.S. through 2006. ( CDC, 2008 ) How common is this problem/issue in other states? Sub-saharan African states have been hit the hardest by HIV/AIDS. Of the 33.4 million people in the universe life with the disease, over two tierces of them ( 22.4 million ) reside in this country of the universe. It is estimated that in 2008 entirely, 1.9 million new people were infected with the disease. South Africa itself is place to an estimated 5.7 million people infected with HIV/AIDS. ( Joint United Nations Programme on HIV/AIDS [ UNAIDS ] , 2009 ) Prevalence rates of the disease vary from state to state, but about all are above 10 % . The state with the highest degree of prevalence is Swaziland, with 26 % of its grownup population infected with HIV. ( WHO, 2008 ) The chief method of transmittal of the disease in this part is via heterosexual sexual contact, although the â€Å" usual † hazard groups are besides represented. In blunt contrast to the United States in respect to prevalence rates between sexes, Sub-saharan adult females are the bulk of the septic. As of 2008, 60 % of the entire HIV infections in the part were female. This is thought to be largely due to the sex trade in the part ; nine states have reported that over 30 % sex trade workers are confirmed HIV positive. ( UNAIDS, 2009 ) There is good intelligence sing the epidemic in the part. Many states have been sing diminutions in prevalence rates and new infections over the past old ages. For illustration, Zimbabwe, which in 1997 reported an grownup prevalence rate of merely under 30 % has seen a steady diminution since so. It ‘s current rate of 15 % , while still high, shows unbelievable advancement in decelerating the spread of the disease. The figure of entire people populating with the disease is really high, but portion of the figure is due to the fact that septic people of the part are get downing to populate longer thanks to better intervention options. ( WHO, 2008 ) This, coupled with better consciousness and instruction of the disease and a general displacement towards better sexual patterns is get downing to convey a step of control of the epidemic Tho the part, but much more work demands to be done to truly acquire a grip on the job. What are the negative effects of this job on the person, household, and society? The most obvious consequence of the disease on the person is, to be blunt, decease. As HIV continues to destruct a individual ‘s immune system, they become susceptible to timeserving infections. This means that sicknesses that a normal immune system could contend off with easiness become serious jobs in those with the disease. It is these infections that cause decease due to AIDS ; the organic structure becomes more and more worn down by invariably combating the disease and its infections until it merely can non go on to contend. ( Hunter, 2005 ) There are other effects non limited in range to the septic individual ‘s organic structure. In the earlier old ages of the epidemic when cognition of the causes and transmittal methods of HIV/AIDS was ill-defined, there was a definite fright of those populating with the disease. This increased as it was made clear that the disease was non entirely limited to homosexual work forces or injection drug users, the two groups who comprised the bulk of initial diagnosings. Some provinces enacted Torahs to divide septic individuals from the remainder of the population. ( Siplon, 2002 ) People populating with the disease lost their occupations and medical insurance due to their septic position. They besides found themselves alienated by friends and household who merely did n’t cognize how to get by. ( Patton, 2002 ) There was a definite feeling of a divide in society between those with the disease and those without. A illustration of such a divide could be seen in the instance of Ryan White in 1985. Ryan was 13 old ages old at the clip he was diagnosed with AIDS received via a blood transfusion. When his infected was discovered he was barred by school functionaries from returning to category. After taking the affair to tribunal and winning he was allowed to return to category merely to confront more favoritism. Even though wellness governments assured the populace that the disease could non be transmitted casually, people did non like the thought of a kid infected with a fatal disease around their kids. Protests occurred outside the school daily, and the full household was capable to menaces and other signifiers of torment until they were finally forced to relocate to a more accepting community. ( Siplon, 2002 ) Today, with better apprehension of the disease and its transmittal methods there is far less fright of those infected with the disease. However, there still seems to be a spot of a stigma attached to being infected with the disease, possibly likely due to the fact that is still at this clip incurable. ( McElrath, 2002 ) Describe how another civilization or state view this job. One interesting instance to analyze is that of Kenya. While other states acted to seek to control the spread of HIV/AIDS, Kenya did non. Alternatively, Kenya continued to deny the significance of the disease, both politically and and socially. A strong stigma was attached to what the state viewed as â€Å" a disease of homophiles and aliens † . No Torahs exist to protect septic people from favoritism. HIV trials are platitude in the employment procedure, and negative consequences are required to measure up for most life and wellness insurance policies. ( McElrath, 2002 ) There has even been talk of implementing a policy of compulsory presentment of sexual spouses by people infected with HIV. ( Patton, 2002 ) The community as a whole seems loath to face the possibility that they may be infected. As such, the sum of people who choose to voluntarily be tested for the disease is really low. Peoples are besides really loath to uncover their HIV positive position to others due to th e ostracization that may happen. Kenya has been slow in its attempts to battle the disease. Attempts have been made but seem to ever hit opposition, or merely a dreamy attitude toward the job. Plans to include information about generative wellness and HIV/AIDS into the school course of study were met with heavy resistance from parents and the spiritual elements of the authorities, and were finally abandoned. In 1997 Parliament passed a sessional paper detailing the state ‘s program to stem the disease, but it did non hold the power of jurisprudence. Since so few of the commissariats that were set Forth in the paper have come to fruition ; the authorities still seems to be dragging its pess to turn to the issue caput on. A National Aids Control Program was established, but placed really low in political importance and has been mostly uneffective. ( McElrath, 2002 ) Describe at least two ways how 1 might get by with this sexual job or issue. It is true that there still is no remedy for HIV/AIDS, but medical interventions of the disease have improved greatly over the old ages. In the early old ages, there was merely one drug known to battle the HIV virus: AZT ( azidothymidine ) . Before that drug existed, physicians were limited to handling the timeserving infections that developed in their patients ( Patton, 2002 ) Nowadays there are upwards of 30 different drugs. The most common drug intervention therapy is called HAART ( Highly Active AntiRetroviral Therapy ) , more normally known as the â€Å" AIDS cocktail † . In this therapy a patient will take a combination of several different anti-HIV drugs. This slows the patterned advance of the disease into full blown AIDS ( by several old ages, in some instances more than 20 ) , evidently increasing the endurance rate of the patient. Even after the oncoming of AIDS, HAART intervention can assist forestall timeserving infections from developing. This comes at a monetary value ; long term usage of this therapy could take to other serious wellness hazards such as coronary bosom disease. A patient may besides construct an unsusceptibility to a type of drug over clip. ( Hock, 2007 ) Many policies sing HIV/AIDS have besides been instituted. One of the biggest is the Ryan White Comprehensive AIDS Resources Emergency ( CARE ) act enacted in 1990. This provided federal support to plans that provide attention and other support for people infected with the disease. There are plans aimed at bar of the disease, such as ( voluntary ) HIV/AIDS instruction in schools, doing AIDS information available to the general public every bit good as aiming specific high hazard demographics, to controversial plans such as needle exchange plans for endovenous drug users and doing rubbers readily available in high schools. The Americans with Disabilities Act included people populating with HIV/AIDS, protecting them by jurisprudence from favoritism. ( Siplon, 2002 ) All of these techniques have helped to increase the quality and length of life for septic people. Choose the attack you feel best addressed and/or solves the problem/issue and depict why this method is better. While I believe research to forestall and perchance bring around the disease is a worthy outgo of resources, modern medical specialty is still a long manner from happening a remedy. To truly extinguish the disease, the first measure should be to seek to extinguish the causes of it. Therefore, it is my sentiment that the better header method would be to concentrate on policies and plans to battle HIV/AIDS, specifically plans on bar. There is grounds that such plans work. In one survey done in New York between 1990 – 2001, after needle exchange plans were implemented HIV prevalence dropped from a high of 54 % to a depression of 13 % . ( Patton, 2002 ) An Australian study stated that during 1990 – 2000, an estimated 25,000 HIV infections had been averted due to needle exchange plans. ( McElrath, 2002 ) Although these plans are controversial, they produce consequences. Possibly the strongest instance point is Uganda, located in Sub-Saharan Africa. The authorities responded caput on to the disease when the range of the epidemic became clear. It implemented policies for attention of the septic, plans to distribute instruction and consciousness of the disease and its methods of transmittal, and better sex instruction for the population. It besides better educated people of the methods for safer sex, and made rubbers widely available and provided direction on proper usage. ( McElrath, 2002 ) The consequence of these policies is amazing ; prevalence of HIV in Uganda has dropped from a high of 15 % to an unbelievable 5 % . ( UNAIDS, 2008 ) This shows that decently funded and executed plans and policies can hold a profound affect on the prevalence of the disease. While it ‘s non a remedy, decelerating and possibly halting the spread of HIV/AIDS is the best class of action to prosecute while scientific discipline continues to seek for a lasting remed y. Describe at least one get bying technique or method utilized by another civilization or state. The state of Brazil ‘s National AIDS plan ( PN-DST/AIDS ) has instituted legion policies for intervention of those with HIV/AIDS every bit good as instruction and awareness plans aimed to stem the spread of the disease since its origin in 1985. Possibly the most extremist policy is that of supplying free drug intervention therapy ( including HAART ) to anyone necessitating it. Numerous ( but still non all ) infirmaries are equipped and able to supply equal attention for septic people. Surveies of the epidemic in the state are performed on a regular basis every two old ages to track incident rates and roll up other statistics. Millions of dollars have been spent on telecasting and wireless runs to assist educate and distribute consciousness of the disease in the population. Educational stuffs were made widely available to the people ( with specific stuffs distributed to the high hazard public ) and a monthly paper detailing the disease and bar techniques is distributed to rate s chool pupils. Programs advancing rubber usage and distribution were besides created. Several hundred nongovernmental organisations formed with partial support from PN-DST/AIDS and have been priceless helping in the executing of these plans. ( Okie, 2006 ) While an project of this magnitude is a baronial attack to contending the disease, it comes at a steep monetary value. Funding for PN-DST/AIDS came about entirely from an tremendous loan granted by the World Bank ( about $ 650 million ) Obviously this debt entirely is a monolithic hurdle for the state to get the better of in the coming old ages. It must besides non merely acquire out from under the debt, but continue to fund the plans without incurring heavier debt. The drugs provided free to patients are highly expensive to purchase, and at that place have been jobs maintaining the supply filled adequately ( this is frequently made the duty of province or other municipal services ) . ( McElrath, 2002 ) Even with these jobs the state has made definite headroom in contending the disease. Decision HIV/AIDS is still as lifelessly today as it was when it was foremost discovered. However, much advancement has been made in contending the disease. We now have drug interventions that greatly increase the length of life of septic people, and are more educated world-wide on the inside informations of the disease and how to avoid it. I believe these are the grounds why at that place seems to be less attending paid to the disease in current times. With better cognition and interventions, the fright that the disease one time spread has dramatically decreased. Many new infections occur every twelvemonth, but the Numberss are far less than they used to be. There is besides less of a stigma placed on persons populating with the disease. While this surely is a good thing, we ( talking globally ) can non go lazy in our attempts. Education and bar plans must go on to see that future coevalss are able to properly protect themselves. HIV/AIDS is non a disease that is typically acquired through sheer opportunity ; certain behaviours open us up to changing degrees of hazard. Until the clip comes ( if it of all time does ) that we find a complete remedy, forestalling new incidents of the disease is where our attempts need to be focused. How to cite Details Of Hiv And Aids Health And Social Care Essay, Essay examples

Ethical Issues From Titled Article Enron †Myassignmenthelp.Com

Question: Ethical Issues From The Titled Article Enron Ethics? Answer: Introducation The first major ethical issue in the article is the creation of Special Purpose Vehicles (SPVs) by Enron. The company entered into a partnership to raise money and boost its position in the market (Sims Brinkmann, 2003). However, the management applied deceptive methods to mask its declining financial performance. Partnerships allowed the company to sell assets and book revenues before to a partnership. This ethical issue enabled the company to generate huge revenues. Partners and potential investors thought that the company was performing well and continued to invest. Besides, the SPVs included a fraudulent technique to hid debts from the balance sheet. The SPVS is an ethical issue because a conjunction of motive and opportunity leads to an ethical hazard (Pendse, 2012). The second major ethical issue was encouraging employees to invest heavily in the company without informing them of the financial status. The business executives were aware that the company was making significant losses. A few business executives were earning millions of dollars at the expense of the ignorant workers. Most of the employees had invested their life-savings in Enron with the hope of earning good returns. There are indicators that the executives knew that the company would run bankrupt. Jeffery Skilling resigned from his position as the CEO when the accounting dealings of Enron became intricate (Sims Brinkmann, 2003). This issue is an ethical issue because the business management propagated corruption on a colossal scale without considering the employees investment. The situation can be attributed to fraud on a large scale. How to develop virtuous The primary concept is that virtuous is like a skill that can be learned and practised. Hence, humans can learn and practice skills in their daily life. Aristotles virtue ethics is not absolute. There is thus a chance for every human being to develop and enact virtuous. A person can make good judgement when it is desirable or at the right time. Once a person develops virtuous, they will be in a position to express good character in the most deserving events. Consequentialist judges whether the act is right or wrong based on the results of the action (Shaw, 2008). If the results of an action are good, then it will be considered as right. Even if the intentions of a person were wrong, the action would be judged based on the consequences. This theory differs from virtue ethics because virtue ethics judges the action rather than the outcome. On the other hand, non-consequentialist considers the reason for a certain action and not the outcome (Shaw, 2008). This theory judges people on how good their intentions were regardless of the consequence. For instance, if a wrong action leads to a good outcome then it will be considered as good. Conversely, if a right action results in a wrong consequence, then it will be considered as wrong.The main difference in these three theories is about decision making and outcome of the decision. This difference is evident in peoples character and judgments when faced with moral dilemmas. Kelloggs CRS statement The Kelloggs CRS statement is insincere. The CRS statement is structured to convince the public that the company is socially responsible. Additionally, the company aims to attract potential customers to the business. In its CRS statement, Kellogg argues that their products are nutritious and meant to enhance healthy lifestyles. However, different organisations have shown that the Kelloggs products are unhealthy. The Food Commission detected high levels of sugar in breakfast bars. Australian Consumer Magazine found high levels of saturated fats in LCM bars. False information by organisations about their CSR practices might lead to misleading actions (Rhmkorf, 2015). The placement of false information in the CSR is always meant to mislead consumers to purchase certain products. The incidence of Kellogg is similar to other ethical issues whereby companies fail to observe their CRS statements. Kellogg is striving to maximise stakeholders value through its unethical practices. The management might be propagating the view that business exists to maximise shareholder only. Application of Kantian theory Kelloggs CRS statement contradicts the Kantian theory of ethics. According to Kantian, one should never treat another human being as a mere means to an end (Sensen, 2011). Actions are only considered as moral if the autonomy of human beings is respected. Kantian further argues that an action is moral if it is applicable as a universal law. Kelloggs actions are unethical since the company fails to respect human beings autonomy. The sale of innutritious and unhealthy foods is not universally accepted. Due to these aspects, Kellogg is insincere, and its actions are unethical. Perspectives of fair trade that can be considered Fair trade is a broad topic that covers many perspectives. The central theme in fair trade, however, revolves around improving the living standards of people. One of the most important perspectives of enhancing fair trade is subsidising farmers. Farmers can be empowered to produce more even in small scale farming. Apart from producing more, subsidies will also help farmers to produce high-quality products. The products can then be exported to other countries. Another perspective is offering affordable health. Studies have shown that millions of people die annually due to infectious diseases. For instance, Australians living in rural areas experience poorer health status (Thomas et al., 2015). Affordable healthcare will help such community to access primary health care services. The trading rules are further causing a wide gap between the rich and poor. A review of trading rules can help to address this discrepancy. Trading rules should specifically focus on importation. Cheap importations have a significant adverse impact on local production (Oxfam Fair Trade Clips, 2007). Trading rules should be fair and designed to improve equality. Whether corporations have a responsibility to the international community Corporations have a responsibility to the international community. Corporations have a moral responsibility to improve the economy and condition of the community where they operate (Brennan et al., 2011). This aspect insinuates that corporations should not focus on making profits only. Thus, corporations should include their responsibility to the global community in both short-term and long-term goals. The responsibility of the corporations can also be viewed as corporate philanthropy. References Brennan, . et al., 2011. Corporate social responsibility : the corporate governance of the 21st century. 2nd ed. Wolters Kluwer Law Business. Oxfam Fair Trade Clips. 2007. [Online Video]: tombottoms. Pendse, S.G., 2012. Ethical Hazards: A Motive, Means, and Opportunity Approach to Curbing Corporate Unethical Behavior. Journal of Business Ethics, 107(3), pp.265-79. Rhmkorf, A., 2015. orporate social responsibility, private law and global supply chains. Edward Elgar Publishing. Sensen, O., 2011. Kant on human dignity. Walter de Gruyter. Shaw, W., 2008. Business Ethics. 6th ed. Thomsom Wadsworth. Sims, R.R. Brinkmann, J., 2003. Enron Ethics (Or: Culture Matters More than Codes). Journal of Business Ethics , 45, pp.243-56. Thomas, S.L., Wakerman, J. Humphreys, J.S., 2015. Ensuring equity of access to primary health care in rural and remote Australia - what core services should be locally available? International journal for equity in health, 14(1), p.111.

Problems of Developing Countries in International Trade free essay sample

Problems of Developing Countries in International Trade Developing countries and trade Introduction: International trade is an important source of foreign income in almost all developing economies, these countries are referred to as developing due to their low GDP level and they are faced with high levels of poverty and unemployment, according to David Ricardo and Adam smith international trade plays a crucial role in the development of an economy, the Mercantile theory of development states that trade led to the wealth of nation. This paper discus the various problems that the developing countries face in international trade and their effect on the agricultural, industrial and service sectors. Some of these problems are external while others are internal problem. Some external problems include competition in the global market, tariffs and other trade barriers, required quality standards. Some internal problems include high cost of production, tariffs of inputs and   Problems faced by developing countries:There are various problems that developing countries face in international trade which will be discussed; this paper also provides possible solutions to these problems of trade. We will write a custom essay sample on Problems of Developing Countries in International Trade or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page Some of the problems include trade barriers, unfavorable terms of trade, high quality standards,    Agricultural sector: A large portion of GDP in developing countries depend on agriculture, agriculture helps in providing food to the population, providing employment and surplus is exported to other countries.Foreign income highly depends on agricultural products exported and also tourism, however agriculture plays an important role in these countries in providing employment and food, there are various problems that these developing countries face in this sector and they include:   Trade barriers: High tariffs are imposed on imports in international trade; tariffs are a source of revenue to the government but at the same time they restrict the level of imports in a country, the agricultural sector in developing countries are faced with this problem because their good become more xpensive in the internal market due to imposed tariffs. The tariffs will reduce the amount demanded du e to the increase in price, therefore the agricultural sector is faced with the problem of declined demand for their products, and for this reason therefore the surplus amounts produced is not exported. Bans and quotas are also trade barriers that cause problems in internal trade, in the case of quota the developing countries are only required to export a certain quantity to country, this is a major draw back to the agricultural sector in the developing countries.High input costs: Most developing countries import inputs such as fertilizer, pesticides and oil, their cost in the internal market are usually high and some producers cannot afford these costs, for this reason therefore the cost of producing the agricultural products is usually very high making the final price for these products to be high.Therefore the high cost of inputs will lead to an increase in the cost of production, the final price of the agricultural products is usually very high and therefore less competitive in the internal market, for this reason therefore the agricultural products are usually less demanded in the internal market due to competition from more efficient producers.Oil is also a major input in pro duction in each and every sector in an economy, the developing countries in most cases will import oil from developed countries where prices fluctuate frequently, and the cost of oil will lead to an increase in the cost of production of these products leading to less competitive prices in the internal market. Subsidies:Many countries subsidize their agricultural sector in order for them to produce more, this has posed a major problem to the developing countries that cannot afford to subsidize its agricultural sector, subsidizing of agricultural production in developed countries result into a reduction in the cost of production and therefore the country demand less imports. Subsidies therefore will create problems to the agricultural sector in the developing countries; this is because the developing countries produce more at low prices that are more competitive in this market. Technology and mechanization:Developing countries import technology and machinery from the developed countri es, these machines help in increasing production and also bringing down the cost of production, however due to the high cost of these machines the developed countries prefer to use labor intensive methods of production due to high initial cost and also maintenance costs. The lack to use modern machines and technology in production lead to low levels of exports and also high costs of production, for this reason therefore the developed countries remain with the problem of underproduction and also low exports.The lack of machines that help in turning the raw materials from the agricultural sectors into finished products lead to increased disadvantages to the developing countries, most developing countries export raw materials whose prices in the international market is low, developing countries should therefore start exporting finished products from the agricultural sector rather than export raw material. Some developing countries use genetically modified plants for production, these products are more productive where the time taken to grow and also the production levels.This is a challenge to the developing countries to adopt modern technology to increase production and also reduce costs of production. Lack of product diversity: Developing countries e xport approximately the same product to the internal market, this leads to increased competition and the developed countries have power over them on deciding from which country to import from, and further the developed countries will set prices due to high competition in the global market.Product diversification means that the developing countries should not produce the same goods for exports; they should try and diversify the products they exports in order to reduce competition and therefore increase the foreign income received. This should involve the introduction of new products to be produced in the agricultural sector that are to meet the demand for consumers abroad. Unfavorable terms of trade:Terms of trade will also be a major problem to the agricultural sector, developing countries exports are mostly agricultural products and they will import machinery and oil from developed countries, this poses a major problem in the terms of trade and this finally results to trade balances because the imports have more value than the exports they produce. Lack of proper bargaining power by the developing countries lead to them experience problem in setting prices, the developed countries will give their decisions on the price they are willing to pay for the products and because the supply in the global market for these products is high the developing countries have little control over the export prices and the problem of terms of trade arises making imports expensive than the exports. Debts and balance of trade:Due to the problem of balance of trade and terms of trade the developing countries are faced with the problem of debts, developing countries face balances in trade adding to the problem of high debt levels to finance debts, for this reason therefore the developing countries may restrict imports in order to reduce the level of debts and therefore less inputs to the industries and agricultural sectors, for this reason therefore the country will not be in a position to increase production to offset the debts earlier incurred.Quality and standards: Developed countries and developing countries tradfe partners set high standards for products exported, this lead to frequent ban on products produced in developing countries, A good example is the ban on fish imported from east Africa during Idian Amin reign, the reason was because the dictator had all the disabled people thrown into lake Victoria and therefore it was unhealthy to import fish from the lake.From the above example it is clear that developing countries will ban imports due to various reasons, in the example it was evident that most fish exported from east Africa was tilap ia, tilapia fish is a glazer and fed on sea weed and not meat, however due to the act of the dictator fish imports were banned for health reasons.Other products have also been faced with the same problem, example beef from developing countries where a certain disease outbreak may result into a total ban in the exports of these products even after health checks on the slaughtered animals. This is a major draw back to the agricultural sector. Processing and transportation: Most of the agricultural products require that they are processed before being consumed, most of these products are perishable and require to enter the market within the shortest time possible, this requires that the eveloped country to device ways by which this is possible but due to security reasons some products get stale before they enter the market. For this reason therefore there is a need to process these products before they are transported. The other problem is that some products require refrigeration example flowers, vegetables and fish and due to lack of capital to purchase and maintain these machines, for this reason therefore the products are not of quality on entering the market.Poor transport and communication network in developing countries also hinders the movement of good, for this reason the surplus products produced in developed countries does not find its way into the market resulting into less products being exported, for this rea son therefore the developing country government has a role to play in ensuring supportive infrastructure exist which will aid in transportation of goods to the market.Bureaucracy in international trade: Most developing countries are faced with the problem of bureaucratic policies formed by developed countries, a country may export a certain product to a developing country but it is required to import a certain product from the developing country, these are bureaucracies that lead to trade diversion where developing countries may be forced to import good from a high cost country because it exports the products to that country.These bureaucratic policies harm the developing country agriculture sector whereby they are required to import a product from a country where it exports to its product failure to which they are denied access to the market. These bureaucratic organization also set the prices they buy the imports from the developing countries, this is amjaor draw back to the agric ultural sector in the developing country because developed countries will set prices for the goods imported from these countries and also set the prices for the inputs into the agricultural sector. Industrial sector and services: The industrial sector in developing countries is still in its initial stages of development, developing countries will protect these industries though tariffs and quotas to protect infant industries, the countries will also try to help these industries by subsidizing the products in order for them to gain competitive advantages in the internal market, there are some problems that this sector face in international trade and they include:   High cost of nputs: The industrial sector will demand inputs from foreign countries and in most cases the cost of these inputs will be very high which will make the cost of final products to be high, the industrial sector products therefore will have a higher price in the global market reducing their competitiveness in other countries, this is a disadvantage to the industrial sector.Some of these inputs include oil and oil products that lead to an increase in the cost of production if their prices are increased by o il exporting countries; the cost of production caused by high input prices is therefore a major disadvantage toward the development of the industrial sector in developing countries. However there is need for the industrial sector to adopt other alternatives as sources of energy and also substitute imported inputs with locally produced products. Technology:Developing countries fail to make a break through in science and technology, they do not undertake sufficient research for technological progress, for this reason their products do not meet the quality of the products in the international products, developing countries are highly advanced in technology and will produce high quality products that are very competitive in the market, for this reason therefore the products produced in the industrial sector does not meet the standard set by internal traders.Therefore it is evident that developing countries face challenges in the production of goods where they are required to produce hig h quality goods but they are unable to met these standards due to the lack of technology and machinery that aid in improving the quality of the good they produce. Quotas and tariffs: Developing countries will have infant industries that they protect by means of tariffs and quotas; however trade partners will be against this move and will result into an imposition on more tariffs on goods imported from such a country, this therefore leads to problems in the international market.Tariffs and quotas imposed on the imports by developing countries also pose a major problem to the industries, this is because the cost of production rises far beyond the equilibrium global market prices, the developing countries impose these tariffs to earn revenue from imports but at the same time the industries face problems. Tariffs imposed on their exported products is also a major disadvantage to the developing countries, their products become very expensive in the international market due to these tariffs leading to reduced demand for these products, this is a problem that can only be resolved through formation of trading blocks.Competition: These developing countries aim at producing good for exports but they are faced with stiff competition from other countries producing the same good, high competition leads to a reduction in the global market prices posing a threat to the industrial sectors in developing countries, high competition in the global market therefore leads to reduced earnings from exports by developing countries.High competition also occurs as a result of trading partners producing the same goods they import from the developing countries, these products are substitutes to the products imported and in order to reduce the level of imports they subsidize the production and at the same tim e impose tariffs on imports and therefore the developing countries loose the international markets they earlier acquired.Lack of product diversity: The industrial sector is also faced with the problem of the lack of diversity in the industrial products they export. This lead to increased competition which would have not been present if the countries produced many different goods for exports, for this reason therefore there is a need to diversify on the products produced by the industrial sector.Most developing countries will have industries that do not completely convert raw materials into finished products, this leads to the disadvantage that the industry receive less for exports than when it would have converted the products to their final stage, this happens however due to lack of machines and capital to undertake processing, therefore it is important that the industrial sector produces fully processed products for exports.Bureaucracies; Bureaucracies in internal trade also affec t the industrial sector where developed countries set conditions regarding trade, they require developed countries that export products in their country to import their products, for example a country that exports coffee to a developed country is required to import inputs such as fertilizers and pesticiedes from the same country leading to problems in the industrial sector. Bureaucracies also distort the free market in international trade by setting the prices for products from developing countries, therefore they determine both the input prices and the export prices in developing countries, this is major problem in the development of the industrial sector in developing countries and this is what is referred to as neocolonialism.Loans and grants from developing countries also lead to problems in international markets, developing countries may be offered a grant or a loan but with strings attached or conditions attached, they may require the developing country to purchase certain products from them or even other conditions that may hinder efficient exchange of goods in the international market, the developed country do this for their own benefits and the developing remain poor due to these problems faced in trade.Service sector: Trade involves trade in both goods and services, services include the trade in services provided by countries to other countrie s, these services in trade can for example be viewed as outsourcing services, most companies in developed countries outsource in developing countries due to low wage rates demanded, for this reason therefore there is an exchange of services for income.This sector has developed as a result of improved communication network all over the world allowing people to get employed by companies abroad, however the lack of proper communication networks in developing countries creates a major problem to this sector and there is less income sourced through these methods. Therefore one of the problems is lack of support infrastructure such as communication networks and also electricity supply in remote regions of developing countries. this hinders the development of this sector resulting to reduced income from this sector.The other problem is the high income taxes imposed on this type of sourcing, most countries will demand revenue from firms in this sector which makes it difficult for the sector to develop, as a result this sector remains underdeveloped to its full potential due to high tax imposed on income. Despite the high foreign income potential in this sector the developing countries have not focused on its development, according to the various trade theories the free movemtn of goods and services between countries will esult to equalization of factor incomes, however this is not the case and the developing countries still remain low income countries where labor is cheap and capital is far much expensive. There are inputs for this sector such as computers and other machines that are imported from developing countries, they are very expensive and developing countries will impose taxes on these products making them very expensive, the high cost of inputs results into high cost of production and therefore they are less competitive in the global market.Bureaucratic organizations also affect nthe service sector in developing countries, certain conditions put in place by developed countries hinder the proper running of the service sector, conditions are put in place by these bureaucracie s that affect the service sector where the developing country must adhere to in order to participate. Possible solutions:The industrial sector and agricultural sector should adopt modern technology to help increase production and also increase efficiency, when this is done the sectors will experience scale economies and also a reduction in the costs of production, technology should be adopted in the agricultural sector where machines should be introduced to perform various tasks increasing efficiency, the other option is to introduce genetically modified plants and seeds that are more productive, when this occurs the final product prices will be very competitive in the global market.The other possible solution is through formation of trading blocks with trading partners, this will lead to opening up of trade and formation of free trade areas, and this will lead to increased specialization among countries that will aid in formation of free trade areas, specialization will result into reduced global market prices of products resulting into improved standards of living among countries.Reduced tariffs on industrial inputs will also result into an added advantage into the industrial and agricultural sector, this will make the inputs more affordable and therefore the cost of production will be reduced significantly resulting into more competitive prices in the international markets. Conclusion:From the above discussion it is clear that both the agricultural and industrial sector face major problems in international trade, some of the highlighted problems in this paper include trade barriers, lack of product diversity, quality and standards, high costs of inputs, terms of trade, lack of technological advancement and competition from other countries. The service sector also faces various problems in trade, outsourcing involves providing services to oversea companies which in turn pay for the services provided, however lack of support infrastructure results into reduced income levels in this sector which remains less developed yet the high potential for foreign income These problems can however be resolved through formation of trading blocks that will help achieve free trade among countries; this will ensure that goods and services exported are competitive in the market.Other solutions include subsidizing and protection of infant industries which will help products to b e more competitive in the international market.Other challenges faced by these developing countries include the bureaucratic policies put in place by developed countries, developing countries are required to follow conditions put in place by these copuhntries for it to continue trading with the developed countries, this is a major problem that should be eliminated to allow proper runni9ng of a free market in international trade, however this requires the developed countries to seize giving conditions to the developing countries to enable them to develop.Developing countries governments should also come up with policy measure that help in providing support infrastructure such as road networks and also communication networks, this will help improve internal problems faced by these sectors. Further improvements in policies should be aimed at reducing costs of inputs through zero tariffs on industrial and agricultural inputs imported.

Till vs. Until

Till vs. Until Till vs. Until Till vs. Until By Maeve Maddox A reader asks, Isnt the shortened version of until spelled ’til, not til or till? I know that till is a word (I worked as a grocery store cashier as a teenager), so I understand why it doesnt get flagged by spellcheck when some writers incorrectly shorten the word until as till. Many speakers believe that the till in such expressions as â€Å"Till death do us part† and â€Å"Till the end of Time† should be written ’til, as if it were a shortened version of until. In fact, till is not a shortening of until. It is a freestanding word that can be used as a preposition and as a conjunction in the same ways as until. Both words are documented with the sense of â€Å"up to the time of† as early as the 1300s. Till is more common in speech and until in writing, but both have been used interchangeably by generations of writers. Shakespeare uses both in All’s Well That Ends Well (c.1604): Go, tell the Count Rousillon, and my brother, We have caught the woodcock, and will keep him muffled Till we do hear from them. Our rash faults Make trivial price of serious things we have, Not knowing them until we know their grave. Dickens uses both till and until in Great Expectations (1861): I was not expected till to-morrow; but I had my keys, and, if Herbert were gone to bed, could get to bed myself without disturbing him. Until she opened the side entrance, I had fancied, without thinking about it, that it must necessarily be night-time. George Orwell does it in Nineteen Eighty-Four (1949): The new ration did not start till tomorrow and he had only four cigarettes left. Very likely the confessions had been rewritten and rewritten until the original facts and dates no longer had the smallest significance. The form ’til is a fairly recent invention, created by writers in the mistaken belief that spoken till is a shortening of until and should therefore be written with an apostrophe for the missing syllable un-. Bottom line: Till is a perfectly good English word. ’Til is nonstandard. Want to improve your English in five minutes a day? Get a subscription and start receiving our writing tips and exercises daily! Keep learning! Browse the Spelling category, check our popular posts, or choose a related post below:The Royal Order of Adjectives Rules for Capitalization in TitlesWord Count and Book Length

Effective Advertisement English Paper Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Effective Advertisement English Paper - Essay Example However, not every good or service is able to reach its target audience and after all be sold out. Nowadays it is not enough just to get a right idea and implement it in production process. For making your plan work there has to be a promotion, main principles of which will manage to bring your product to customer’s awareness, position it on the market and stimulate sales. Only with a help of precisely elaborated market strategy new product is able to achieve its consumers. Carefully planned advertising campaign may ensure more than fifty percent of success. Otherwise, even a first-class product with high quality and low price can be left unnoticeable by customers. That is why today companies try to advertise their goods and services as frequently and intensively as possible, influencing people’s awareness and behavior. It is fair to mention that advertising has great power, because a lot of things depend on it. Sometimes it happens that according to bad ad, product may be left unaccepted by customers. That is why it is very essential to take into careful consideration every word of slogan, every possible image, color, font, sound or character during advertising campaign. As experience shows, not all advertisements are equally effective and successful. Sometimes producing and advertising the same goods, companies achieve different outcomes. This occurs because various companies choose various marketing strategies. Some of them manage to create the right ad, which is appropriate for customers and able to attract their attention, some do not. Creation of ads requires deep analysis of advertising product and its potential consumers. Sometimes the wrong color of written slogan may make ad unprintable and unattractive, pushing the whole idea to the failure. In this respect, it is urgent to take into account all details of ad’s design, implementing main principles of marketing. For having a clear presentation about different types of ads and also for understanding how exactly flaws of advertising can spoil attitude to the product, several ads of different companies have been chosen for further research. All companies are famous retailers of furniture. The potential audience is multi-faced, mostly family people and businessmen, who can be interested in the furniture for home and office. Advertising analysis Despite advertising’s positive return, many sociologists continue to criticize it, stating that advertisements compel consumers to buy products that they do not need. In the reality advertising is everywhere and it is quit hard to avoid it. We can see it in magazines, newspapers, brochures, booklets, billboards, placards, posters. It is broadcasted on different TV channels and radio waves. It is fair to admit that advertising is so popular due to its effectiveness. Belch stated that good ad requires serious elaboration due to significant financial losses, hence â€Å"the cost of producing a TV commercial can excee d $1 million† (237). Medium expenditure of USA for advertising in newspapers equals to 20 billions of dollars and in magazines 11.7 billions of dollars. That sources of advertising yield only broadcasting television, according to the research of Percy (87). There are several purposes of advertising. First of all, with its help companies make consumers be aware of the new products or possible novelties in design or functions of the

Analyze the impact of globalization, technology, and the quest for Essay

Analyze the impact of globalization, technology, and the quest for democracy in the Middle East today - Essay Example But in this short essay I will analyze in more detail another existential problem touched upon by both of the authors in their stories, namely, the treatment of the protagonists by the society and their attitude toward the communities they live in. What makes both books similar is a wide, yet quite resembling, range of metaphysical and existential problems the supernatural events of the sci-fi storyboard are covering. The dark side of the protagonists in either Shelleys or Stevensons stories is revealed contrary to their expectations. The depth of the spiritual abyss, which protagonists of both stories found themselves in against their own will as a result of actions made in good faith, led to dire consequences and death of innocent people. Once anyone in a community takes on responsibility for breaking the worlds backbone and defying the laws of nature, the way either Victor Frankenstein in Shelleys novel or Dr. Jekyll in Stevensons novella have done, the payback comes inevitably. Mary Shelley gave her book a title that contains the name of a hero from the ancient Greek mythology as an implication to the bitter end of her story. The legend about Prometheus becomes the key note of the whole book not by chance. According to the Greek mythology, Prometheus was the divine being responsible for creation of humankind. Complying with the desire of the supreme God named Zeus Prometheus made a human being in the image of god and taught men everything he knew. But then Prometheus got corrupted by humans and betrayed Zeus who had punished mankind for their wrong-doings. Zeus took the fire away from humans as a punishment, but Prometheus defied the odds and stole the fire from Zeus to give back to the people. In turn, Zeus decided to punish Prometheus for such impudence and tied him to the mountain to make suffer eternally. Just like in the legend about Prometheus, whose ambitions

Judicial System and Application of Criminal Responsibility Essay

Judicial System and Application of Criminal Responsibility - Essay Example The main role of any judicial system is to mitigate crime, provide social control, and impose sanctions to violators of the law and to rehabilitates individuals who have violated the law. Germany Criminal Justice system The Germany criminal justice system is one of the most elaborate systems in the world due to the proper structure and the eloquent due process. The German police are the first line contact with crimes happening on the ground. Additionally, their main mandate is to detect, conduct investigations and arrest lawbreakers. After the police have made an arrest, they proceed to register the crime and embark on thorough investigations. However, in other cases, the police can conduct undercover investigation in order to detect criminal activities and gather sufficient evidence for prosecution purposes. Additionally, when they find sufficient evidence, then they hand over the case to the public prosecutions officer who is has the mandate of prosecuting the suspect on behalf of the public (Miller & Gaines, 2011). However, the prosecution must have a high degree of specificity in order to prosecute an individual according to the German laws. Additionally, the matter must be an offense against the public interest. However, when the nature of crime is minor and the prosecutor sees no ground of public prosecution, then the penal sanctions are applied that may include fines. The prosecutor can go ahead and prosecute an offender, when the crime is against the public and has sufficient evidence. However, the courts will commence proceedings after thoroughly examining the charges, the nature of crime and the degree of seriousness (Hess, Orthmann & Cho, 2012). When an individual commits a crime for instance robbery, the police conduct an intensive investigation regarding the crime before they register it and forward it to the public prosecutions officer who then evaluates the case against the evidence in order to forward it to court for proceedings to commence. How ever, the crime must cause significant harm to the public for instance robbery causes harm to the victims. When the public prosecutor forwards the case to court, the court examines the case against the evidence that the public prosecutions officer puts forward in order to establish grounds for commencing proceedings otherwise without sufficient evidence and legal grounds the court throws out the case (Cole & Smith, 2008). The public prosecutor has to follow the due process model to the letter in order to achieve successful prosecution. The first court that majorly deals with criminal cases has one professional judge specialized in criminal cases and two other lay judges. Similarly, a higher court consists of three professional judges and two other lay judges. When an individual is arraigned in court with charges of robbery, then the case may take two major directions, they court may terminate the proceeding on grounds of insufficient evidence or the case may proceed if the court est ablishes grounds for the case. At this point, the defendant may be sentenced to imprisonment if found guilty. The main aim of the German Judicial process is to reform the individual, protect the public from such criminal offences that the individual may commit. Additionally, the

Analysis of Energy Consumption in Ireland

Analysis of Energy Consumption in Ireland Introduction General Introduction The following chapter will introduce the dissertation topic by means of its intended goals, outline of content within each chapter and the research methodology. The research goals present the authors aims to be achieved, core objectives and hypothesis to test. The chapters shall be briefly described as to their particular topic area. Research methodology will establish the research process, planning, data collection methods utilized and finally mention limitations encountered throughout completing the dissertation. Research Goals Aim To investigate is renewable energy the way of the future, the potential of renewable energy sources and to analyse their long-term capability of meeting Irelands future energy needs. Objectives To consider past and present trends of energy consumption in Ireland. To investigate the suitability of this technology for Ireland. To evaluate the environmental advantage of using the technology. To examine in detail the practical adoption of renewable energy technology in another country. To compare traditional energy sources against renewable sources. To examine the financial implications of changing from the traditional energy supply to a more renewable supply. Hypothesis Renewable energy is a viable option for meeting energy requirements for the future of the Irish energy market. Outline of Chapters Chapter 1: This chapter introduces the dissertation and details the authors core objectives to be researched. The structure of the dissertation is briefly described, which details the key sources of information followed by a short account of the chapters to follow. Chapter 2: The dissertation begins with a short first chapter explaining what is known as renewable energy. Chapter 3: Talks about potential future energy demands. Energy trends are evaluated to prepare an estimated energy forecast for Irelands future. Chapter 4: Investigates into why a renewable energy future? The chapter deals with the rising demand and price of oil and gas. Also the concerns about climate change and Irelands commitment to the EUs Directives on the deployment of renewable energy are dealt within the chapter. Chapter 5: The chapter reviews the renewable energy options available to Ireland. The options are assessed on the extent to which they could be used in meeting future demands. Chapter 6: Examines the Governments present proposal Renewable Electricity A 2020 Vision, which is to set up an All-Island Energy Market between the Republic and Northern Ireland. The Chapter evaluates the proposal to secure future energy supply through renewable energy for the whole island. Chapter 7: This chapter considers nuclear energy through certain areas which may be beneficial or not to Ireland. Chapter 8: This is the final chapter of the dissertation where the author reaches conclusions from the research carried out to date, followed by recommendations and areas for further study. Research Methodology Research may be defined as, the systematic study of materials and sources in order to establish facts and reach new conclusions (Concise Oxford English Dictionary 2005). This section outlines the research methods used to prepare this dissertation. The structure of this dissertation presents the findings of research, clearly identified, which was conducted by the author. Also aspects of data collection associated with problems encountered and limitations will be summarized. Research Process Preliminary research began during the Authors placement year (year 3 of BSc Construction Economics Management in Limerick Institute of Technology). As part of the year a dissertation proposal submission was required. An initial investigation on the availability of information was carried out and being satisfied that the information available was sufficient, I decided to continue with the topic. The initial sources primarily included books, Internet, papers and magazines. Research Planning For the research process consideration was given to the possible methods of approach to the actual dissertation. To carry out the research effectively and in a detailed manner a research plan and programme was established. This plan consisted of giving sufficient time for the detailed research of material both published and unpublished. From this the author got a detailed understanding of the topic and the exact focus of the dissertation was established along with the content and scope of the various chapters. After choosing the title, aim, objectives and hypothesis, a detailed plan had to be formulated to meet each objective of the dissertation. This proved vital to the success of the dissertation, given the limited time frame to review material, engender results and complete the dissertation. Due to the amount of publications and information that needed reviewing for inclusion into the dissertation file, reading and analysis was continuously ongoing. All articles of information were scanned generally to assess their suitability and all relevant information marked accordingly. All relevant information, once analysed, was categorized based on its relevance to a given chapter. Data Collection Methods In order to test the hypothesis of this dissertation effectively detailed information had to be sought on all aspects of renewable energies and the Irish energy market. The types of data used for compiling this dissertation came from both primary and secondary sources. Material from both sources was read in detail and any information relevant to any aspect of the dissertation topic was highlighted and noted. For the actual structure of the separate chapters, this information was subdivided into separate files for each proposed chapter. Primary Sources The dissertation utilized primary sources, as work contained provided accurate information. The volume of the information was obtained from Government organisations and EU reports. The up to date factor of the reports was its main advantage. Other organisations such as Sustainable Energy Ireland published reports which proved very beneficial. As the dissertation subject is topical at present, there have been many related conferences and the proceedings published. Official Government publications were helpful especially for information relating to the All Island Energy Market. Other official publications from the EU were used to gather information on EU Directives and the Kyoto Protocol. Finally structured interviews were conducted in relation to setting up and operating wind farms as the results offered accurate first hand information. Past dissertations have been utilized but for the purpose of guidance. Secondary Sources An in depth documentary review was undertaken by the author, which involved examining various sources of information for factual information. This information was taken from construction journals, textbooks, brochures and magazines. Text books were used only for background information. Magazines and national papers proved helpful in keeping up with new developments affecting the topic, for example the Budget and Government publications. As the dissertation required up to date information on the topic, a large quantity of information was obtained from the Internet. Limitations There were a number of difficulties encountered during the research of this dissertation. The main concern for the author was the realization that new information on the chosen topic was constantly being up dated with new developments. As the dissertation is somewhat based on what may happen in the future, the conclusions and recommendations are based on educated assumptions. There exists a lack of published work in relation to the All Island Energy Market, as the consultation period is still on going. Contact with the Department of Communications, Marine and Natural Resources was made with regard to the topic and all other topics relating to the dissertation. The author was informed that the most up to date information would be available in the Governments Energy White Paper 2007 Delivering a Sustainable Energy Future for Ireland and that information contained within it could not be released until the Governments official launch on the 12th of March 2007. Due to time constraints the author was not able to exploit this source. Based on the limited amount of information available the author utilized a significant amount of secondary sources. Also research questionnaires had to be abandoned due to a lack of response from organisations. Although certain information available was limited, with continued research and perseverance though all possible avenues it is believed that suitable material was compiled delivering a complete dissertation on the subject matter. CHAPTER TWO What Is Renewable Energy? Introduction Renewable energy comes from energy sources that are continuously replenished by nature. They are non-fossil energy sources that are not depleted by utilization. The main sources of renewable energy are the wind, the sun (solar energy), water (hydropower, wave and tidal energy) and biomass (wood, biodegradable waste and energy crops). Renewable energy sources are those which are effectively inexhaustible (such as wind, wave, solar, hydro etc) or which are replenished at or about their rate of consumption (such as managed forests and energy crops and other forms of biomass) (Anon 2005). What are the Benefits of Renewable energy? Renewable energy resources are clean sources of energy. They can be harnessed without damaging the environment, unlike using fossil fuels which release carbon dioxide (a greenhouse gas) and other harmful pollutants into the atmosphere. Increasing the use of renewable energy is therefore a key strategy for reducing greenhouse gas emissions and meeting Irelands Kyoto commitments. Renewable energy resources will not become exhausted. Unlike finite fossil fuels, renewable energy resources are continuously replenished and will not run out. Renewable energy resources are indigenous resources. Ireland is heavily reliant on imported fossil fuels. We now import around 89% of the fuels we need for energy. By tapping the renewable energy resources with which Ireland is richly endowed, we could reduce this reliance on imports. By increasing our use of renewable resources, we can achieve a more secure and stable energy supply for the long term (Sustainable Energy Ireland a). Chapter Summary Renewable energy generally refers to energy derived from non-fossil fuel resources (excluding nuclear). Renewable energy has become more popular in recent times as talks of global warming increase internationally and exhaustion of fossil fuels. Renewable energy will benefit the environment and help reduce our dependency on depleting sources of energy. CHAPTER THREE Irelands Potential Energy Needs Introduction To assess the potential of renewable sources sustaining Irelands energy needs in the future, firstly energy trends have to be evaluated to estimate the future requirements. It is impossible to know for sure what the future will hold but by reviewing different forecasts, a reasonable estimate can be made. Energy Trends Energy trends of the past fifteen years will give a good review of Irelands energy growth. It was within this time that the country experienced significant economic growth which was seen in the energy sector. The amount of energy consumed is shown through the Total Primary Energy Requirement (TPER). Total Energy Requirement (TER) figures represent the total Irish electricity generation at the plant exported level plus imports, less exports. The TER is the amount of electricity required to meet total final consumption in the Republic of Ireland including an allowance for transmission and distribution losses (Anon 2005). Figure 3.1 shows the Total Primary Energy Requirement (TPER) of the Republic of Ireland, broken down by fuel type, over the period 1990 to 2000. Estimates for the period 2001 to 2010 are also included. This figure shows that there was rapidly increasing growth in energy demands in the 90s and in particular, the mid 90s to 2000. It also shows a high dependence on the oil and gas. Energy Forecasts The Government document, All-Island Energy Market: Renewable Electricity A 2020 Vision; Preliminary Consultation Document, (Anon 2005), forecasts energy demands by firstly modifying the 2005 2011 median TER values so as to account for generation plant house load, and then determining the values for 2012 2020 at the assumed growth rates of 3% per annum between 2012 and 2015, and of 2% per annum between 2015 and 2020. This can be clearly seen in Table 3.1. These facts are based on the future for the whole island of Ireland, a joint north and south venture of meeting future energy demands and include Northern Ireland which is discussed in Chapter Six. The above forecast is not alone in believing that there will be a steady growth, although slightly less over a longer period of time. The report (Howley et al 2006) assumes electricity demand to grow significantly. Table 3.2 from the report shows the predicted growth. The prediction assumes the CO2 costs â‚ ¬15/tonne in 2010 and â‚ ¬30/tonne in 2020. Chapter Summary The past energy trends showed that there has been a constant rise in energy demand and this is reflected in the forecasts. The two different reports predicted to 2020 and show a similar prediction. It can then be assumed that to 2010 a 3.0 4.0% increase can be expected and from 2010 2020, a lesser 1.0 2.0%. The forecast for the generating fuel is predicted through past trends and present economic development, predicting oil to be eliminated by 2010 and gas to dominate. Although renewables are predicted to increase, early forecasts report they will only have a minor impact. CHAPTER FOUR Why a Renewable Energy Future? Introduction The future of Irelands energy supply is changing and it can not be stopped but we can adapt. The foremost important issue for the Government is to secure the countries future energy supply. Irelands geographical location and fuel resources means it is of critical importance that the future energy supply is secured now before it is too late. Ireland is too dependant on import fossil fuels for energy and so we need to become more independent, which renewable energy can provide. While Irelands imports of fossil fuels for energy still stand at about 85 per cent, much higher than the EU average of 50 per cent, there is a definite shift towards renewables. But there are other factors steering Ireland towards renewable sources, including EU and Kyoto responsibilities. Oil and Gas Depletion Oil and gas are a finite resource and there so going to completely run out some day. The demand for gas and in particular oil is increasing. This is mainly due to significant economic growth of China and India. The report Exxon-Mobils view of the future of oil and gas predicts demand is expected to rise through the year 2010 at a rate of about 2 per cent per year for oil and 3 per cent per year for gas (Longwell), as shown in Figure 4.1. This is leading to a rise in price, Figure 4.2, which already is affecting Ireland. As stated in the EU Green Paper in 2006, Oil and gas prices are rising. They have nearly doubled in the EU over the past two years, with electricity prices following. This is difficult for consumers. With increasing global demand for fossil fuels, stretched supply chains and increasing dependence on imports, high prices for oil and gas are probably here to stay (Anon 2006). Rising oil prices In its 2001 review BP commented The worlds oil R/P (reserve to production) ratio has fallen modestly since 1990 as world oil production growth has outpaced additions to reserves (Busby 2002). A chart in the 2001 review shows 1990 as the year when the R/P peak ratio of 44 was passed, reducing to 40 by the end of 2000. At the end of 2002 the R/P ratio had reduced further to 39, to rise to 41 at the end of 2003, dropping back to 40.5 at the end of 2004, but shown at 40.6 at the end of 2005. As production continues to rise and additions to reserves fail to match it, the ratio of oil reserves to production (R/P) will continue to decline and the price of crude oil will rise. The world gas R/P ratio in 2005 was 65.1, compared to 40.6 for oil. At 2005 production rates, gas reserves would provide a source of energy for a further 24 years after oil exhaustion. But when oil supplies starts to run out, more gas will be used as a substitute, hence increasing gas depletion. So if oil production peak is predicted at 2010, gas production peak should follow bout the year 2020. The problem starts to become apparent when you realise the decline of oil discovery, as shown in Figure 4.3. The gap between discovery and consumption is widening and this will eventually lead to oil production peaking. Chevron, one of the worlds largest oil companies, admits to the imminent peak and decline of oil. An Oil production peak before or by 2010 seems now to be generally accepted. The not so distant future of Irelands energy market will then have to contend without oil. The oil market is global where the gas market is regional and this is where Ireland could really suffer in the long term. It is predicted that gas will outlast oil but gas has to be piped and Irelands geographical location causes problems. The discovery of the Corrib gas field is potentially very important as it offers temporary relief from increasingly unreliable supplies of gas from the United Kingdom and Europe, says Colin Campbell, petroleum geologist (Campbell). In the near future with oil demand rising pushing up prices and in the distant future oil not been available, we must look to renewables now. The Corrib gas field is small and might get ten or more years out of it at the current rate of consumption but the Government should use this opportunity to draw on the gas to help support renewable energy. The Environment and EU Directive Irelands main source of energy is fossil fuels which produce vast quantities of CO2, add to climate change and which the EU intend to reduce. The emissions that are produced from burning fossil fuels are becoming more serious every year and a much discussed topic at national and international level. Climate Change and the Kyoto Protocol Fossil fuels constitute a significant repository of carbon buried deep under the ground. Burning them results in the conversion of this carbon to carbon dioxide, which is then released into the atmosphere. This results in an increase in the Earths levels of atmospheric carbon dioxide, which enhances the greenhouse effect and contributes to global warming (Wikipedia). As was seen in Figure 4.4, fossil fuels are a major electricity fuel for Ireland. Fossil fuels, particularly coal, contain a dilute radioactive material which is released into the environment leading to low levels of radioactive contamination. Within the EU burden sharing agreement to meet its obligation under the Kyoto Protocol, Ireland must stabilise its Greenhouse gas emissions at 13% above 1990 levels within the period 2008 to 2012 (Department of Communications, Marine and Natural Resources 1998). Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) latest Assessment Report was released on the 2nd of February 2007 in Paris. The report was produced by some 600 authors from 40 countries. According to the IPCC, the warming of the world is unequivocal, and that humans are very likely (higher than 90% likelihood) behind the warming. The key conclusions were: Possible temperature rise between 1.1C and 6.4C by 2100 Sea level most likely to rise by 18-59cm (7in-23in) Artic summer sea ice disappears in second half of century Increase in heatwaves very likely Increase in tropical storm intensity likely Considering overall greenhouse gas emissions, energy related CO2 emissions accounted for 51% in 1990 compared to a projected 66% in 2010 if we continue in the same direction. Renewable energy would dramatically reduce Irelands CO2 emissions by replacing fossil fuels. This will take time, so if want to have any chance of meeting the requirements, we have to act now. EU Directive The use of renewable energy has a legislative basis in the EU under Directive (2001/77/EC). The Directive asserts the European Countries need to promote renewables to contribute to: †¦environmental protection and sustainable development. In addition this can also create local employment, have a positive impact on social cohesion, contribute to security of supply and make it possible to meet Kyoto targets more quickly'(Anon 2005). The directive forces Ireland to have an output of renewable powered electricity to 13.2% of total electricity consumed in Ireland by 2010. But the Government is hoping to have it up to 15% by 2010 through the Renewable energy Feed In Tariff (ReFIT) programme. The new Renewable energy Feed in Tariff (ReFIT) programme replaces the Governments previous support mechanism, the Alternative Energy Requirement (AER) programme and provides financial support of â‚ ¬119m to renewable energy projects over a fifteen year period The ReFIT programme will support the construction of an initial target of at least 400 megawatts (MW) of new renewable energy powered electricity generating plants. Its main aim is to increase the contribution of renewable energy sources to electricity production. The ReFIT programme will help make renewable energy competitive and is a move closer to reaching the Kyoto Protocol and the EU directive. Failure to meet the Kyoto Protocol and EU Directive (2001/77/EC) will have serious financial implications. On April 4th 2006 the European Commission launched legal proceedings against Ireland, for failing to meet the deadline of October 2003 for taking the necessary measures to transpose Community legislation on renewable electricity into national law. Ireland is now under pressure to act on renewable energy. Future Policies EU Leaders decided on Friday 9th of March 2007 to slash greenhouse gas emissions, which included a binding target for renewable sources to make up a fifth of EU energy use by 2020. The leaders committed to a target of reducing EU greenhouse gas emissions by 20 per cent by 2020 and offered to go to 30 per cent if major nations such as the United States, Russia, China and India follow suit. According to a draft agreement, the EU will aim to go even further in the future, with cuts of 60 to 80 per cent by 2050. Reports of drastic future climate change in the wake of the IPCCs recent assessment, talk of a post Kyoto agreement is been debated. The recent EU summit outcome of reducing greenhouse gas emissions by 20 per cent will form the basis of the EUs position in international talks to replace the U.N. Kyoto Protocol, which expires in 2012. Whatever it may be called, it will aim to severely reduce Greenhouse Gases to coincide with Global Warming reports. Either way it will mean a serious change for Governments and society. Chapter Summary The demand for gas and in particular oil is increasing largely due to the economic growth of China and India. The reserves at the moment show gas will outlast oil. Oil production is predicted to peak around 2010 but as oil resources decrease, demand for gas will increase to make up the slack which will result in gas production peaking sooner rather than later. The large growth in demand at present is increasing prices and with talk of oil production peaking and the politically unstable situation in the Middle East, prices look set to continue escalating. Renewable energy can help Ireland reduce its dependence on imported fossil fuels. Irelands main energy source, fossil fuels, is seriously damaging the environment and the main cause of Global Warming. The Kyoto Protocol requires Ireland to reduce its CO2 emissions. Under EU legislation Ireland must increase the use of renewable energy to 13.2% of all electricity produced but the Government are aiming for 15% with the announcement of the ReFIT programme. The programme will help meet Kyoto and EU obligations. Recent announcement from the EU requires 20% of the EUs electricity generation mix be from renewable sources by 2020. This ambitious target will require serious consideration from the Government. CHAPTER FIVE The Renewable Energy Options for the Future Introduction To meet the future energy demands, the Government will have to put a lot more work into developing renewable sources of energy. The positive from this, is Ireland has vast potential for renewable energy production, especially wind. Although the Government are starting to take more notice of renewable energy technology. Within Budget 2007 Brian Cowan stated scheme of tax relief in place in the form of a deduction from a companys profits for corporate investment in renewable energy products in the solar, wind, hydro or biomass technology categories, shall be continued for a further five years, subject to EU approval (Cowan 2006). But when considering renewable energy options, it is important to realistically assess their full potential. The present renewable energy sources should be looked at in a view of their output and efficiency, then evaluate their future part in securing the countrys energy supply. Wind Power Wind power is one of the most mature renewable energy technologies to date and currently has a good record of reliability and availability. The wind resources in Ireland are among the best in the EU due to the strength of the Atlantic winds. A wind turbine in Ireland will deliver twice as much power as the same turbine in Germany. We are the envy of Europe because of our wind speeds (Seanad Éireann 2005). Wind energy has seen major advances in Ireland recently, especially in the last four years. Wind energy now has the largest installed capacity of all renewable energy technologies in Ireland (Figure 5.1). As per up to date statistics from EirGrid, there is currently a total of 744 MW worth of wind power connected to the main grid and an additional 547.3 MW worth of energy from contracted wind farms currently in production to be connected at various stages in the future. (See Appendix C and Appendix D) Renewable Connections Kinetic energy in airflows is used to run wind turbines; some are capable of producing 5 MW of power, but the most cost effective are currently 500 kW 1.5 MW. Conventional investment costs are about â‚ ¬1,100 per kW installed. Wind energy has been growing significantly over recent years and following the trend, wind power will keep going in the near future, Figure 5.2. Wind Generation since 1992 to 2007 Onshore Wind Onshore wind in Ireland is mainly concentrated on the west coast due to strong winds from the Atlantic. Wind-speed maps help decide on the locations by showing the wind potential of certain areas but sites close to the western sea shore is generally the best region, as with Tursillagh Wind Farm. (Example of Analysis of Wind Potential See Appendix E) Turbines at Tursillagh Winds in an area are often monitored for a year and detailed maps constructed prior to wind generators being installed. Coastlines tend to be the windiest sites for turbines, because a primary source of wind is convection from the differential heating and cooling of land and sea. The erection of a wind farm onshore is becoming straight forward with companies having gained much experience and knowledge. Ireland has had well developed onshore wind energy for many years and has the knowledge to develop bigger wind farms to help meet the countries energy demand. Offshore Wind The offshore electricity production in Ireland is minimal but has made a good start. Arklow Offshore Wind Power Plant is the worlds first offshore project to deploy giant wind turbines in excess of 3megawatts and is Irelands only offshore wind project. But already is showing great prospect, showing excellent reliability and availability, areas where wind power is mainly criticised. The site was chosen as tests proved to be one of the windiest areas in Europe. Offshore turbines cause less aesthetic controversy as usually can not be seen from the shore. It offers fewer obstacles and stronger winds but is also more inaccessible and the conditions are harsh, corrosive and can increase the costs of maintenance. Unlike with onshore wind farms, planning is not an issue. The biggest obstacle at present is the significant capital cost even compared to onshore wind. Irelands offshore potential is an untapped resource and must be harnessed to become a serious contributor to the Irish electricity mix. Offshore wind power generation should be recognised for what it is; Irelands best option for meeting present renewable energy and CO2 targets. Planning for the Future To promote wind as one of the major sources of electricity in the future, it can be beneficial to look at a similar EU country with a successful wind market, for example Denmark. The ESB system is comparable in size to the west Denmark Eltra system. The Transmission System Operator (TSO) in Ireland, ESB National Grid (ESB NG), has asked for a report, explaining the management of the western Danish system Eltra with a focus on handling of wind production (Hilger 2004). This shows the level of interest in the Danish system for wind. The ESB has spotted the potential of assessing Denmarks approach to wind for our own future development. Denmark has only modest wind speeds, compared to Irelands impressive wind energy potential. As can be seen in the Case Study (Appendix F), the key to Denmarks wind power success is the support from the interconnectors to other EU countries. Winds intermittence problem is compensated with bought in electricity from the Nordic power pool at the going rate. The major interest in Denmarks Eltra system for the future will come from Denmarks offshore development, in particular the Horns Rev Wind Park. The Horns Rev Wind Park is a show case of Danish initiative in the large scale promotion of renewable energy. Horns Rev is the largest offshore wind farm in the world, producing two per cent of Denmarks total energy consumption. Much can be learned from Horns Rev in planning the future of wind power generation in Ireland. The offshore turbines produce 150 per cent more electricity than land based turbines. Also Denmarks offshore areas are restricted but the Irish situation is a decentralised approach where the pick of areas is open for private initiative. The Horns Rev project was a result of fourteen years of research and initiated by the Danish Government which was the main factor for its commencement. The turbines used (Vestas V80) which can adapt the output of the turbine to suit the parameters of any electricity grid. Although a lot of p lanning and research went into Horns Rev, construction only took six months which was run through the summer months for improved weather conditions. And finally so successful was Horns Rev, an additional wind farm (Horns Rev 2) is to be built northeast of the existing farm. The new offshore wind farm and the landing facilities will be commissioned in May 2009. (See Appendix F, Case Study) Constraints of Wind P Analysis of Energy Consumption in Ireland Analysis of Energy Consumption in Ireland Introduction General Introduction The following chapter will introduce the dissertation topic by means of its intended goals, outline of content within each chapter and the research methodology. The research goals present the authors aims to be achieved, core objectives and hypothesis to test. The chapters shall be briefly described as to their particular topic area. Research methodology will establish the research process, planning, data collection methods utilized and finally mention limitations encountered throughout completing the dissertation. Research Goals Aim To investigate is renewable energy the way of the future, the potential of renewable energy sources and to analyse their long-term capability of meeting Irelands future energy needs. Objectives To consider past and present trends of energy consumption in Ireland. To investigate the suitability of this technology for Ireland. To evaluate the environmental advantage of using the technology. To examine in detail the practical adoption of renewable energy technology in another country. To compare traditional energy sources against renewable sources. To examine the financial implications of changing from the traditional energy supply to a more renewable supply. Hypothesis Renewable energy is a viable option for meeting energy requirements for the future of the Irish energy market. Outline of Chapters Chapter 1: This chapter introduces the dissertation and details the authors core objectives to be researched. The structure of the dissertation is briefly described, which details the key sources of information followed by a short account of the chapters to follow. Chapter 2: The dissertation begins with a short first chapter explaining what is known as renewable energy. Chapter 3: Talks about potential future energy demands. Energy trends are evaluated to prepare an estimated energy forecast for Irelands future. Chapter 4: Investigates into why a renewable energy future? The chapter deals with the rising demand and price of oil and gas. Also the concerns about climate change and Irelands commitment to the EUs Directives on the deployment of renewable energy are dealt within the chapter. Chapter 5: The chapter reviews the renewable energy options available to Ireland. The options are assessed on the extent to which they could be used in meeting future demands. Chapter 6: Examines the Governments present proposal Renewable Electricity A 2020 Vision, which is to set up an All-Island Energy Market between the Republic and Northern Ireland. The Chapter evaluates the proposal to secure future energy supply through renewable energy for the whole island. Chapter 7: This chapter considers nuclear energy through certain areas which may be beneficial or not to Ireland. Chapter 8: This is the final chapter of the dissertation where the author reaches conclusions from the research carried out to date, followed by recommendations and areas for further study. Research Methodology Research may be defined as, the systematic study of materials and sources in order to establish facts and reach new conclusions (Concise Oxford English Dictionary 2005). This section outlines the research methods used to prepare this dissertation. The structure of this dissertation presents the findings of research, clearly identified, which was conducted by the author. Also aspects of data collection associated with problems encountered and limitations will be summarized. Research Process Preliminary research began during the Authors placement year (year 3 of BSc Construction Economics Management in Limerick Institute of Technology). As part of the year a dissertation proposal submission was required. An initial investigation on the availability of information was carried out and being satisfied that the information available was sufficient, I decided to continue with the topic. The initial sources primarily included books, Internet, papers and magazines. Research Planning For the research process consideration was given to the possible methods of approach to the actual dissertation. To carry out the research effectively and in a detailed manner a research plan and programme was established. This plan consisted of giving sufficient time for the detailed research of material both published and unpublished. From this the author got a detailed understanding of the topic and the exact focus of the dissertation was established along with the content and scope of the various chapters. After choosing the title, aim, objectives and hypothesis, a detailed plan had to be formulated to meet each objective of the dissertation. This proved vital to the success of the dissertation, given the limited time frame to review material, engender results and complete the dissertation. Due to the amount of publications and information that needed reviewing for inclusion into the dissertation file, reading and analysis was continuously ongoing. All articles of information were scanned generally to assess their suitability and all relevant information marked accordingly. All relevant information, once analysed, was categorized based on its relevance to a given chapter. Data Collection Methods In order to test the hypothesis of this dissertation effectively detailed information had to be sought on all aspects of renewable energies and the Irish energy market. The types of data used for compiling this dissertation came from both primary and secondary sources. Material from both sources was read in detail and any information relevant to any aspect of the dissertation topic was highlighted and noted. For the actual structure of the separate chapters, this information was subdivided into separate files for each proposed chapter. Primary Sources The dissertation utilized primary sources, as work contained provided accurate information. The volume of the information was obtained from Government organisations and EU reports. The up to date factor of the reports was its main advantage. Other organisations such as Sustainable Energy Ireland published reports which proved very beneficial. As the dissertation subject is topical at present, there have been many related conferences and the proceedings published. Official Government publications were helpful especially for information relating to the All Island Energy Market. Other official publications from the EU were used to gather information on EU Directives and the Kyoto Protocol. Finally structured interviews were conducted in relation to setting up and operating wind farms as the results offered accurate first hand information. Past dissertations have been utilized but for the purpose of guidance. Secondary Sources An in depth documentary review was undertaken by the author, which involved examining various sources of information for factual information. This information was taken from construction journals, textbooks, brochures and magazines. Text books were used only for background information. Magazines and national papers proved helpful in keeping up with new developments affecting the topic, for example the Budget and Government publications. As the dissertation required up to date information on the topic, a large quantity of information was obtained from the Internet. Limitations There were a number of difficulties encountered during the research of this dissertation. The main concern for the author was the realization that new information on the chosen topic was constantly being up dated with new developments. As the dissertation is somewhat based on what may happen in the future, the conclusions and recommendations are based on educated assumptions. There exists a lack of published work in relation to the All Island Energy Market, as the consultation period is still on going. Contact with the Department of Communications, Marine and Natural Resources was made with regard to the topic and all other topics relating to the dissertation. The author was informed that the most up to date information would be available in the Governments Energy White Paper 2007 Delivering a Sustainable Energy Future for Ireland and that information contained within it could not be released until the Governments official launch on the 12th of March 2007. Due to time constraints the author was not able to exploit this source. Based on the limited amount of information available the author utilized a significant amount of secondary sources. Also research questionnaires had to be abandoned due to a lack of response from organisations. Although certain information available was limited, with continued research and perseverance though all possible avenues it is believed that suitable material was compiled delivering a complete dissertation on the subject matter. CHAPTER TWO What Is Renewable Energy? Introduction Renewable energy comes from energy sources that are continuously replenished by nature. They are non-fossil energy sources that are not depleted by utilization. The main sources of renewable energy are the wind, the sun (solar energy), water (hydropower, wave and tidal energy) and biomass (wood, biodegradable waste and energy crops). Renewable energy sources are those which are effectively inexhaustible (such as wind, wave, solar, hydro etc) or which are replenished at or about their rate of consumption (such as managed forests and energy crops and other forms of biomass) (Anon 2005). What are the Benefits of Renewable energy? Renewable energy resources are clean sources of energy. They can be harnessed without damaging the environment, unlike using fossil fuels which release carbon dioxide (a greenhouse gas) and other harmful pollutants into the atmosphere. Increasing the use of renewable energy is therefore a key strategy for reducing greenhouse gas emissions and meeting Irelands Kyoto commitments. Renewable energy resources will not become exhausted. Unlike finite fossil fuels, renewable energy resources are continuously replenished and will not run out. Renewable energy resources are indigenous resources. Ireland is heavily reliant on imported fossil fuels. We now import around 89% of the fuels we need for energy. By tapping the renewable energy resources with which Ireland is richly endowed, we could reduce this reliance on imports. By increasing our use of renewable resources, we can achieve a more secure and stable energy supply for the long term (Sustainable Energy Ireland a). Chapter Summary Renewable energy generally refers to energy derived from non-fossil fuel resources (excluding nuclear). Renewable energy has become more popular in recent times as talks of global warming increase internationally and exhaustion of fossil fuels. Renewable energy will benefit the environment and help reduce our dependency on depleting sources of energy. CHAPTER THREE Irelands Potential Energy Needs Introduction To assess the potential of renewable sources sustaining Irelands energy needs in the future, firstly energy trends have to be evaluated to estimate the future requirements. It is impossible to know for sure what the future will hold but by reviewing different forecasts, a reasonable estimate can be made. Energy Trends Energy trends of the past fifteen years will give a good review of Irelands energy growth. It was within this time that the country experienced significant economic growth which was seen in the energy sector. The amount of energy consumed is shown through the Total Primary Energy Requirement (TPER). Total Energy Requirement (TER) figures represent the total Irish electricity generation at the plant exported level plus imports, less exports. The TER is the amount of electricity required to meet total final consumption in the Republic of Ireland including an allowance for transmission and distribution losses (Anon 2005). Figure 3.1 shows the Total Primary Energy Requirement (TPER) of the Republic of Ireland, broken down by fuel type, over the period 1990 to 2000. Estimates for the period 2001 to 2010 are also included. This figure shows that there was rapidly increasing growth in energy demands in the 90s and in particular, the mid 90s to 2000. It also shows a high dependence on the oil and gas. Energy Forecasts The Government document, All-Island Energy Market: Renewable Electricity A 2020 Vision; Preliminary Consultation Document, (Anon 2005), forecasts energy demands by firstly modifying the 2005 2011 median TER values so as to account for generation plant house load, and then determining the values for 2012 2020 at the assumed growth rates of 3% per annum between 2012 and 2015, and of 2% per annum between 2015 and 2020. This can be clearly seen in Table 3.1. These facts are based on the future for the whole island of Ireland, a joint north and south venture of meeting future energy demands and include Northern Ireland which is discussed in Chapter Six. The above forecast is not alone in believing that there will be a steady growth, although slightly less over a longer period of time. The report (Howley et al 2006) assumes electricity demand to grow significantly. Table 3.2 from the report shows the predicted growth. The prediction assumes the CO2 costs â‚ ¬15/tonne in 2010 and â‚ ¬30/tonne in 2020. Chapter Summary The past energy trends showed that there has been a constant rise in energy demand and this is reflected in the forecasts. The two different reports predicted to 2020 and show a similar prediction. It can then be assumed that to 2010 a 3.0 4.0% increase can be expected and from 2010 2020, a lesser 1.0 2.0%. The forecast for the generating fuel is predicted through past trends and present economic development, predicting oil to be eliminated by 2010 and gas to dominate. Although renewables are predicted to increase, early forecasts report they will only have a minor impact. CHAPTER FOUR Why a Renewable Energy Future? Introduction The future of Irelands energy supply is changing and it can not be stopped but we can adapt. The foremost important issue for the Government is to secure the countries future energy supply. Irelands geographical location and fuel resources means it is of critical importance that the future energy supply is secured now before it is too late. Ireland is too dependant on import fossil fuels for energy and so we need to become more independent, which renewable energy can provide. While Irelands imports of fossil fuels for energy still stand at about 85 per cent, much higher than the EU average of 50 per cent, there is a definite shift towards renewables. But there are other factors steering Ireland towards renewable sources, including EU and Kyoto responsibilities. Oil and Gas Depletion Oil and gas are a finite resource and there so going to completely run out some day. The demand for gas and in particular oil is increasing. This is mainly due to significant economic growth of China and India. The report Exxon-Mobils view of the future of oil and gas predicts demand is expected to rise through the year 2010 at a rate of about 2 per cent per year for oil and 3 per cent per year for gas (Longwell), as shown in Figure 4.1. This is leading to a rise in price, Figure 4.2, which already is affecting Ireland. As stated in the EU Green Paper in 2006, Oil and gas prices are rising. They have nearly doubled in the EU over the past two years, with electricity prices following. This is difficult for consumers. With increasing global demand for fossil fuels, stretched supply chains and increasing dependence on imports, high prices for oil and gas are probably here to stay (Anon 2006). Rising oil prices In its 2001 review BP commented The worlds oil R/P (reserve to production) ratio has fallen modestly since 1990 as world oil production growth has outpaced additions to reserves (Busby 2002). A chart in the 2001 review shows 1990 as the year when the R/P peak ratio of 44 was passed, reducing to 40 by the end of 2000. At the end of 2002 the R/P ratio had reduced further to 39, to rise to 41 at the end of 2003, dropping back to 40.5 at the end of 2004, but shown at 40.6 at the end of 2005. As production continues to rise and additions to reserves fail to match it, the ratio of oil reserves to production (R/P) will continue to decline and the price of crude oil will rise. The world gas R/P ratio in 2005 was 65.1, compared to 40.6 for oil. At 2005 production rates, gas reserves would provide a source of energy for a further 24 years after oil exhaustion. But when oil supplies starts to run out, more gas will be used as a substitute, hence increasing gas depletion. So if oil production peak is predicted at 2010, gas production peak should follow bout the year 2020. The problem starts to become apparent when you realise the decline of oil discovery, as shown in Figure 4.3. The gap between discovery and consumption is widening and this will eventually lead to oil production peaking. Chevron, one of the worlds largest oil companies, admits to the imminent peak and decline of oil. An Oil production peak before or by 2010 seems now to be generally accepted. The not so distant future of Irelands energy market will then have to contend without oil. The oil market is global where the gas market is regional and this is where Ireland could really suffer in the long term. It is predicted that gas will outlast oil but gas has to be piped and Irelands geographical location causes problems. The discovery of the Corrib gas field is potentially very important as it offers temporary relief from increasingly unreliable supplies of gas from the United Kingdom and Europe, says Colin Campbell, petroleum geologist (Campbell). In the near future with oil demand rising pushing up prices and in the distant future oil not been available, we must look to renewables now. The Corrib gas field is small and might get ten or more years out of it at the current rate of consumption but the Government should use this opportunity to draw on the gas to help support renewable energy. The Environment and EU Directive Irelands main source of energy is fossil fuels which produce vast quantities of CO2, add to climate change and which the EU intend to reduce. The emissions that are produced from burning fossil fuels are becoming more serious every year and a much discussed topic at national and international level. Climate Change and the Kyoto Protocol Fossil fuels constitute a significant repository of carbon buried deep under the ground. Burning them results in the conversion of this carbon to carbon dioxide, which is then released into the atmosphere. This results in an increase in the Earths levels of atmospheric carbon dioxide, which enhances the greenhouse effect and contributes to global warming (Wikipedia). As was seen in Figure 4.4, fossil fuels are a major electricity fuel for Ireland. Fossil fuels, particularly coal, contain a dilute radioactive material which is released into the environment leading to low levels of radioactive contamination. Within the EU burden sharing agreement to meet its obligation under the Kyoto Protocol, Ireland must stabilise its Greenhouse gas emissions at 13% above 1990 levels within the period 2008 to 2012 (Department of Communications, Marine and Natural Resources 1998). Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) latest Assessment Report was released on the 2nd of February 2007 in Paris. The report was produced by some 600 authors from 40 countries. According to the IPCC, the warming of the world is unequivocal, and that humans are very likely (higher than 90% likelihood) behind the warming. The key conclusions were: Possible temperature rise between 1.1C and 6.4C by 2100 Sea level most likely to rise by 18-59cm (7in-23in) Artic summer sea ice disappears in second half of century Increase in heatwaves very likely Increase in tropical storm intensity likely Considering overall greenhouse gas emissions, energy related CO2 emissions accounted for 51% in 1990 compared to a projected 66% in 2010 if we continue in the same direction. Renewable energy would dramatically reduce Irelands CO2 emissions by replacing fossil fuels. This will take time, so if want to have any chance of meeting the requirements, we have to act now. EU Directive The use of renewable energy has a legislative basis in the EU under Directive (2001/77/EC). The Directive asserts the European Countries need to promote renewables to contribute to: †¦environmental protection and sustainable development. In addition this can also create local employment, have a positive impact on social cohesion, contribute to security of supply and make it possible to meet Kyoto targets more quickly'(Anon 2005). The directive forces Ireland to have an output of renewable powered electricity to 13.2% of total electricity consumed in Ireland by 2010. But the Government is hoping to have it up to 15% by 2010 through the Renewable energy Feed In Tariff (ReFIT) programme. The new Renewable energy Feed in Tariff (ReFIT) programme replaces the Governments previous support mechanism, the Alternative Energy Requirement (AER) programme and provides financial support of â‚ ¬119m to renewable energy projects over a fifteen year period The ReFIT programme will support the construction of an initial target of at least 400 megawatts (MW) of new renewable energy powered electricity generating plants. Its main aim is to increase the contribution of renewable energy sources to electricity production. The ReFIT programme will help make renewable energy competitive and is a move closer to reaching the Kyoto Protocol and the EU directive. Failure to meet the Kyoto Protocol and EU Directive (2001/77/EC) will have serious financial implications. On April 4th 2006 the European Commission launched legal proceedings against Ireland, for failing to meet the deadline of October 2003 for taking the necessary measures to transpose Community legislation on renewable electricity into national law. Ireland is now under pressure to act on renewable energy. Future Policies EU Leaders decided on Friday 9th of March 2007 to slash greenhouse gas emissions, which included a binding target for renewable sources to make up a fifth of EU energy use by 2020. The leaders committed to a target of reducing EU greenhouse gas emissions by 20 per cent by 2020 and offered to go to 30 per cent if major nations such as the United States, Russia, China and India follow suit. According to a draft agreement, the EU will aim to go even further in the future, with cuts of 60 to 80 per cent by 2050. Reports of drastic future climate change in the wake of the IPCCs recent assessment, talk of a post Kyoto agreement is been debated. The recent EU summit outcome of reducing greenhouse gas emissions by 20 per cent will form the basis of the EUs position in international talks to replace the U.N. Kyoto Protocol, which expires in 2012. Whatever it may be called, it will aim to severely reduce Greenhouse Gases to coincide with Global Warming reports. Either way it will mean a serious change for Governments and society. Chapter Summary The demand for gas and in particular oil is increasing largely due to the economic growth of China and India. The reserves at the moment show gas will outlast oil. Oil production is predicted to peak around 2010 but as oil resources decrease, demand for gas will increase to make up the slack which will result in gas production peaking sooner rather than later. The large growth in demand at present is increasing prices and with talk of oil production peaking and the politically unstable situation in the Middle East, prices look set to continue escalating. Renewable energy can help Ireland reduce its dependence on imported fossil fuels. Irelands main energy source, fossil fuels, is seriously damaging the environment and the main cause of Global Warming. The Kyoto Protocol requires Ireland to reduce its CO2 emissions. Under EU legislation Ireland must increase the use of renewable energy to 13.2% of all electricity produced but the Government are aiming for 15% with the announcement of the ReFIT programme. The programme will help meet Kyoto and EU obligations. Recent announcement from the EU requires 20% of the EUs electricity generation mix be from renewable sources by 2020. This ambitious target will require serious consideration from the Government. CHAPTER FIVE The Renewable Energy Options for the Future Introduction To meet the future energy demands, the Government will have to put a lot more work into developing renewable sources of energy. The positive from this, is Ireland has vast potential for renewable energy production, especially wind. Although the Government are starting to take more notice of renewable energy technology. Within Budget 2007 Brian Cowan stated scheme of tax relief in place in the form of a deduction from a companys profits for corporate investment in renewable energy products in the solar, wind, hydro or biomass technology categories, shall be continued for a further five years, subject to EU approval (Cowan 2006). But when considering renewable energy options, it is important to realistically assess their full potential. The present renewable energy sources should be looked at in a view of their output and efficiency, then evaluate their future part in securing the countrys energy supply. Wind Power Wind power is one of the most mature renewable energy technologies to date and currently has a good record of reliability and availability. The wind resources in Ireland are among the best in the EU due to the strength of the Atlantic winds. A wind turbine in Ireland will deliver twice as much power as the same turbine in Germany. We are the envy of Europe because of our wind speeds (Seanad Éireann 2005). Wind energy has seen major advances in Ireland recently, especially in the last four years. Wind energy now has the largest installed capacity of all renewable energy technologies in Ireland (Figure 5.1). As per up to date statistics from EirGrid, there is currently a total of 744 MW worth of wind power connected to the main grid and an additional 547.3 MW worth of energy from contracted wind farms currently in production to be connected at various stages in the future. (See Appendix C and Appendix D) Renewable Connections Kinetic energy in airflows is used to run wind turbines; some are capable of producing 5 MW of power, but the most cost effective are currently 500 kW 1.5 MW. Conventional investment costs are about â‚ ¬1,100 per kW installed. Wind energy has been growing significantly over recent years and following the trend, wind power will keep going in the near future, Figure 5.2. Wind Generation since 1992 to 2007 Onshore Wind Onshore wind in Ireland is mainly concentrated on the west coast due to strong winds from the Atlantic. Wind-speed maps help decide on the locations by showing the wind potential of certain areas but sites close to the western sea shore is generally the best region, as with Tursillagh Wind Farm. (Example of Analysis of Wind Potential See Appendix E) Turbines at Tursillagh Winds in an area are often monitored for a year and detailed maps constructed prior to wind generators being installed. Coastlines tend to be the windiest sites for turbines, because a primary source of wind is convection from the differential heating and cooling of land and sea. The erection of a wind farm onshore is becoming straight forward with companies having gained much experience and knowledge. Ireland has had well developed onshore wind energy for many years and has the knowledge to develop bigger wind farms to help meet the countries energy demand. Offshore Wind The offshore electricity production in Ireland is minimal but has made a good start. Arklow Offshore Wind Power Plant is the worlds first offshore project to deploy giant wind turbines in excess of 3megawatts and is Irelands only offshore wind project. But already is showing great prospect, showing excellent reliability and availability, areas where wind power is mainly criticised. The site was chosen as tests proved to be one of the windiest areas in Europe. Offshore turbines cause less aesthetic controversy as usually can not be seen from the shore. It offers fewer obstacles and stronger winds but is also more inaccessible and the conditions are harsh, corrosive and can increase the costs of maintenance. Unlike with onshore wind farms, planning is not an issue. The biggest obstacle at present is the significant capital cost even compared to onshore wind. Irelands offshore potential is an untapped resource and must be harnessed to become a serious contributor to the Irish electricity mix. Offshore wind power generation should be recognised for what it is; Irelands best option for meeting present renewable energy and CO2 targets. Planning for the Future To promote wind as one of the major sources of electricity in the future, it can be beneficial to look at a similar EU country with a successful wind market, for example Denmark. The ESB system is comparable in size to the west Denmark Eltra system. The Transmission System Operator (TSO) in Ireland, ESB National Grid (ESB NG), has asked for a report, explaining the management of the western Danish system Eltra with a focus on handling of wind production (Hilger 2004). This shows the level of interest in the Danish system for wind. The ESB has spotted the potential of assessing Denmarks approach to wind for our own future development. Denmark has only modest wind speeds, compared to Irelands impressive wind energy potential. As can be seen in the Case Study (Appendix F), the key to Denmarks wind power success is the support from the interconnectors to other EU countries. Winds intermittence problem is compensated with bought in electricity from the Nordic power pool at the going rate. The major interest in Denmarks Eltra system for the future will come from Denmarks offshore development, in particular the Horns Rev Wind Park. The Horns Rev Wind Park is a show case of Danish initiative in the large scale promotion of renewable energy. Horns Rev is the largest offshore wind farm in the world, producing two per cent of Denmarks total energy consumption. Much can be learned from Horns Rev in planning the future of wind power generation in Ireland. The offshore turbines produce 150 per cent more electricity than land based turbines. Also Denmarks offshore areas are restricted but the Irish situation is a decentralised approach where the pick of areas is open for private initiative. The Horns Rev project was a result of fourteen years of research and initiated by the Danish Government which was the main factor for its commencement. The turbines used (Vestas V80) which can adapt the output of the turbine to suit the parameters of any electricity grid. Although a lot of p lanning and research went into Horns Rev, construction only took six months which was run through the summer months for improved weather conditions. And finally so successful was Horns Rev, an additional wind farm (Horns Rev 2) is to be built northeast of the existing farm. The new offshore wind farm and the landing facilities will be commissioned in May 2009. (See Appendix F, Case Study) Constraints of Wind P